Annotations to "Explore Evolution"

This page and its subpages are for criticisms of content found in the Explore Evolution book, its website, and credulous online commentary.

A Critical Look at the Preface

Explore Evolution gives a frame for its discussion of evolution and antievolution in the prefatory material. The frame selected is one of fairness, such that 'both sides' of an issue are presented. This is a useful frame for the EE authors, since its American audience likes few things better than to think that they are being fair.

However, Americans don't particularly like being 'taken', either. They wouldn't respond well to the idea that it is 'fair' to 'balance' chemistry with alchemy or germ theory with 'humors theory'. Yet we have the same situation in the case presented by EE, where an established and accountable body of scientific knowledge, in this case evolutionary science, is stated to require 'balance' with 'evidence against' its theories and concepts, though what is actually presented nowhere rises to the level of being 'evidence against'. Instead, the arguments given as if 'evidence against' are tired old antievolution chestnuts, of no more current value than alchemy and humors theory, and of considerably less historical interest than such milestones in scientific history as the interplay between 'phlogiston' and 'oxygenation'.

Of course, antievolutionary activism has long sought equal credence with evolutionary science. Following the Epperson v. Arkansas decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1968, the rules of the game changed for antievolutionists. Prior to Epperson, they could play a direct exclusion strategy, where their narrow literalist version of Biblical interpretation could be discussed in science classrooms, but evolutionary science could be excluded by law, policy, or custom. The Epperson decision brought an end to that, as the justices opined that science could not be restricted from a science classroom on the grounds that it was deemed to be at variance with some particular religious doctrine. Thus began a long and multifaceted campaign that promoted the same old antievolution arguments, but now referred to them as "scientific" in character. After all, if science can't be excluded from the science classroom, then antievolution advocates would lay claim to their own share of science class time.

This first came out under the rubric of "scientific creationism", promoted most notably by the Institute for Creation Research. A label change followed some years later, as the "-ism" ending connoted belief rather than evidence, and "creation science" became the new moniker for the very same body of arguments. This pattern of behavior is apparently fixed in the antievolution population now. From the mid-1970s through 1987, the most notable antievolution efforts concerned attempts to have state legislatures pass "equal time" or "balanced treatment" laws to mandate that whenever evolutionary science was taught, "creation science" received equal time or was given equal credence for "balance". In 1982, a decision in the McLean v. Arkansas case foreshadowed things to come: Arkansas's "balanced treatment" Act 590 was found unconstitutional. The state of Arkansas did not appeal the decision. A similar act in Louisiana led to a 1987 decision by the SCOTUS in the Edwards v. Aguillard case, again finding a "balanced treatment" law to be an unconstitutional establishement of religion, as it mandated teaching of a religious doctrine of supernatural creation of humans as science. The dissenting opinion in the Edwards v. Aguillard case, though, has given hope to antievolutionists over the years, as it said that states, of course, have the ability to teach both evidence for and against any scientific theory in the classroom.

The Quotations

This is intended to eventually hold a complete list of quotations used in Explore Evolution. As time goes by, people can contribute full quotations in context to be shown side-by-side with what appears in the book.

Quotations are a staple of antievolutionary argumentation. The fondness that antievolution advocates have for quoting sources apparently stems from the idea of proof-texts in religious apologetics. Within that endeavor, a brief quotation from an authoritative source is taken to be dispositive concerning a point of argument. Science, though, operates differently from apologetics, a fact that seems to continually elude and perplex antievolution advocates. In science, evidence trumps authority. In fact, authority in science is correlated strongly with ability to reliably deploy evidence in argument. Since authority is secondary to scientific argument, how sources are handled varies from what is seen in religious apologetics. While concepts and evidence are usefully cited from prior work, one will find that quotation of prior work is rare in the primary scientific literature and in scientific textbooks, and relatively uncommon even within popular treatments of science written by scientists.

Quotation in antievolutionary argument, though, is relatively abundant. Further, there is abundant misquotation within antievolutionary argument. Misquotation is misrepresentation that involves quoted material, and comes in a number of different forms:

* Misrepresentation by fabrication : A "quotation" which has no original, or which adds text to part of an original quotation.

* Misrepresentation by omission : Leaving out text from a {quotation}, thereby altering its meaning.

* Misrepresentation by omission of context : Omitting the {context} of a {quotation}, thereby altering its meaning.

* Misrepresentation by patchwork : A particularly outrageous form of {misquotation by omission}, in which widely separated phrases or sentences are patched together.

* Misrepresentation by selection of strawmen : Quoting a hypothetical or rhetorical position presented by an author during exposition as if it was the actual position of the author; a form of {misquotation by omission of context}.

Because of the long antievolutionary history of misquoting sources, paying special attention to how quoted sources are treated in Explore Evolution is a worthwhile endeavor. Another point concerning the quotation of sources is that when misquotation occurs, it is often both exceedingly obvious when the misquote is compared with the original, and difficult to argue away the fault. The phrase, "He said, she said," has entered our cultural currency as the canonical argumentative morass, a place where everything is simply opinion and there is no firm place to ground a decision on who is wrong and who is right. But a misquotation actually has a firm resolution: if "He said she said *this*", but the original shows that, "She *actually* said *that*", then one can clearly see that the "He" in this case has mistreated his source. What remains after that determination is figuring out why he might have mistreated the source. Was it because he did not understand the material? One can look at the original to see whether it was more than usually confusing. Also, in a book like Explore Evolution that is the work of a group of people, the odds that all of them will be confused in just the same fashion by a source drop rapidly. Another consideration would be whether misquotations establish a pattern of bias: when sources are misquoted, are they only sometimes misquoted in favor of the authors' position, or are they consistently misquoted in such a way that the authors' position is given a false appearance of support?

Pay attention to the source, for as in the case of the second quotation, you can identify the use of misquotation by patchwork or portmanteaus composed of text taken from separated pages of a source.

Quotations from the "Universal Common Descent" Section

Page(s) Source E.E. version Actual Quote
3 Stephen Jay Gould, "Evolution and the triumph of homology: Or, why
history matters," American Scientist 74 (1986):61.
"infer history from its results."1 TBD
7 California Science Framework, 1990:14 & 17. "The process of teaching science requires a precise, unambiguous use of language
... [and] ...Scientists, teachers, and students must communicate the definitions of scientific terms and use them with consistency."4
The quotation appears to be taken from a secondary source: Wiester, John L., "Teaching Evolution as Non-Science: Examples From California's 1990 Science Framework," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 43 (September 1991): 190-193. [Online version.]


The process of teaching science requires a precise, unambiguous use of language .... (p. 14). Educators must be precise in the use of scientific language because that language is crucial to its teaching (p. 17). For clear communication scientists, teachers, and students must communicate the definitions of scientific terms and use them with consistency (p. 17).

Notice the identical placement of the first ellipsis. Note also the unmarked change in case of "Scientists", which means either Wiester misquoted the Framework, EE misquoted Wiester, or both. There is a long history of antievolution advocates playing "telephone" with quotes and arguments.

The quotation appears not to be the only thing borrowed from Wiester; the following conceptual summation appears to be the thrust of EE as well:

While the California Framework contains some excellent statements of what science is and how it should be taught, it treats evolution as exempt from the very principles of science it so vigorously espouses. This paper presents three examples of the Framework departing from its stated rules of science to treat evolution in a non-scientific manner. The examples chosen are: 1. Lack of definition and consistency in use of terms; 2. Failure to discuss both similarities and differences when comparing evolution to other branches of science; and 3. Failure to present evolutionary science as open to challenge and free of dogmatism.

9 Francisco Ayala, Creative Evolution!? eds. J.H. Campbell and J.W. Schopf (Sundberg, Mass: Jones and Bartlett, 1994):4-5. Neo-Darwinian biologist Francisco Ayala, for example, affirms that the "creative duet" of mutation and natural selection can produce the "organization of living beings." 8 TBD
9 Ernst Mayr, Introduction to On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964 [Facsimile of the First Edition, 1859]): xvii; and Ernst Mayr, "Accident or Design, The Paradox of Evolution," in G. Leeper, ed., The Evolution of Living Organisms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962):1-8 Zoologist Ernst Mayr writes that natural selection is a "positive, constructive force," and adds "one can go even further and call natural selection a creative force." 9 An understanding of the working of natural selection is the key to the Darwinian theory of evolution. I know of no other scientific theory that has been misunderstood and misrepresented as greatly as the theory of natural selection. First of all, it is usually represented as strictly negative, as a force that eliminates, a force that kills and destroys. Yet Darwin, by his choice of the name "selection," clearly emphasized the positive aspects of this force. Indeed, we now know that one can go even further and call natural selection a creative force. Second, natural selection is not an all-or-none phenomenon. The typologist, the follower of Plato, seems to think that alternatives are always either good or bad, black or white, worthy of preservation or doomed to rejection. This viewpoint is represented in two statements by well-known contemporary philosophers, chosen at random from the recent literature: "Natural selection requires life and death utility before it can come into play"; and "Unsuccessful types will be weeded out by the survivial of the fittest but it cannot produce successful types."

It seems ironic that the EE authors would chose to highlight a quote that aims criticism at those who misunderstand and misrepresent natural selection.

9 Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987):95. They affirm what zoologist Richard Dawkins calls "the power of natural selection to put together good designs." 10 TBD
11 Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964 [Facsimile of the First Edition, 1859]):484. In a famous passage at the end of the Origin, Darwin argued that, "all the
organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form."
TBD
11 Woese, Carl, "On the evolution of cells," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 [2002]:8742-77; 8746 Some, such as microbiologist Carl Woese of the University of Illinois, argue that "life on Earth is descended not from one, but from three distinctly different cell types,"
20 Adrian Desmond and James Moore, The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist: Darwin. (New York, NY: Warner Books, Inc. 1992):514. "Darwin... reveled in the splendid bird-creature with its long tail and fingers."3 TBD
24 Scott Gilbert, "Morphogenesis of the Turtle Shell: the Development of a Novel Structure in Tetrapod Evolution," Evolution and Development 9 (March-April 2001):56.


[How the Turtle Forms its Shell: A Paracrine Hypothesis of Carapace Formation
JUDITH CEBRA-THOMAS et al. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY (MOL DEV EVOL) 304B:558–569 (2005)]
Scott Gilbert, an evolutionary biologist who works on this puzzle, says that "the turtle shell represents a classic evolutionary problem: the appearance of a major structural adaptation." According to Gilbert, this problem is made even more difficult by "the 'instantaneous' appearance of this evolutionary novelty."* Because "the distinctive morphology of the turtle appears to have arisen suddenly," Gilbert and his colleagues argue that evolution needs "to explain the rapid origin of the turtle carapace [shell]." In fact, this very cool paper (Gilbert 2001) supports a hypothesis that provides an explanation for the rapid evolution of the turtle's shell, directly undermining the use the quote is put to:

"The recognition of a simple developmental mechanism, namely an epithelial-mesenchymal interaction, at the initiation of carapace development provides a basis for hypotheses about the rapid evolution of this body plan (Burke 1989b)."

Burke, A. C. 1989b. Development of the turtle carapace: implications for
the evolution of a novel bauplan. J. Morphol. 199: 363–378.

Note also that the authors hypothesize which proteins are involved, which inductive relationships between tissues are involved, etc.

The quote itself comes from the concluding paragraph of the paper.

"The turtle shell represents a classic evolutionary problem: the appearance of a major structural adaptation. The place of turtles amongst the other amniote groups is a classic question in systematics, due to the "instantaneous" appearance of this evolutionary novelty. The fossil record may yet provide a morphological missing link between Proganochelys and the generalized tetrapod body plan. In the meantime, the application of developmental studies to this evolutionary puzzle may help resolve these questions as to the ontogeny and phylogeny of the ancient order of Chelonia."

Notice that the full context has no hint of the "made even more difficult" concept stated by the EE authors.

Then, the context of the two quotes from Cebra-Thomas et al. 2005:

"This reptile [Proganochelys] had the characteristic derived trunk morphology now associated with turtles. Thus, the distinctive morphology of the turtle appears to have arisen suddenly. We can propose a hypothesis that may explain at least part of how this might happen. The key innovation is to getting the ribs into the dermis. Once there, variation in the population might enable some individuals to use this heterotopic placement of ribs to form a shell. If they could form a positive feedback loop between the rib and the CR (e.g., through Fgf10 and Fgf8), they could co-ordinate rib and carapace growth. When the ribs undergo normal endochodral ossification, the BMPs would induce the costal bones that form the plate of the carapace. (This may involve overpowering natural inhibitors of BMPs that are secreted by the dermis.) This mechanism, wherein the displacement of a tissue allows it to induce structures at new locations, has been proposed by Brylski and Hall (’88) to account for the rapid emergence of the fur-lined cheek pouches of pocket gophers. The compatibility of our findings with those of the turtle fossil record has been noted by paleontologists (Rieppel, ’01)."

and

"These observations indicate that the ribs act as initiation centers for the dermal ossification of costal bones. The ossifying regions of the dermis extend towards one another to eventually fuse. The data reported in the present report confirm and extend these observations and permit us to frame a hypothesis to explain the rapid origin of the turtle carapace."

24 Stefanie De Bodt, Steven Maere, and Yves Van de Peer, "Genome duplication and the origin of angiosperms," Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20 (2005):591-597 This rapid appearance is sometimes called the angiosperm big bloom. "The origin of the angiosperms remains unclear," writes one team of researchers. "Angiosperms appear rather suddenly in the fossil record.. with no obvious ancestors for a period of 80-90 million years before their appearance." 10 Angiosperms appear rather suddenly in the fossil record during the Jurassic [b][208–145 million years ago (Mya)][b], with no obvious ancestors for a period of 80–90 million years before their appearance. Nevertheless, the existence during the Jurassic of all known sister taxa to the angiosperms implies that the angiosperm lineage must have been established by that time [1]. However, this ancestral lineage, coined ‘angiophytes’, is unlikely to be equivalent to angiosperms as known from the Cretaceous (145 Mya) through to recent forms because it might have lacked many of the characteristic angiosperm features [2]. It is presumed that angiophytes went through a period of little diversification during the Late Triassic (220 Mya) and Jurassic, either because the diversity-enhancing features, such as flowers, of the crown-group angiosperms had not yet evolved in stem angiophytes or because the diversity among angiophytes was inhibited during the Jurassic by environmental conditions or biotic interactions [2].

[...]

The fossil record provides excellent evidence for this rapid diversification in floral form during the earliest phases of recorded flowering plant history [5]. Only 10–12 million years elapsed between the first fossil records (not, vert, similar130 Mya) and clear documentation of all of the major lines of flowering plants 1 and 6. This diversification of angiosperms occurred during a period (the Aptian, 125–112 Mya; Figure 1) when their pollen and megafossils were rare components of terrestrial floras and species diversity was low 1 and 6. Angiosperm fossils show a dramatic increase in diversity between the Albian (112–99.6 Mya) and the Cenomanian (99.6–93.5 Mya) at a global scale 7, 8, 9 and 10 (Figure 1).

(Source)

24 Correspondence between Charles Darwin and his friend Joseph Hooker. Quoted by Henry Dunkinfield Scott, The Evolution of Plants (New York: Henry Holt, 1911):37. This contradiction was so perplexing that Darwin himself referred to it as "an abominable mystery."11 TBD
26 Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964 [Facsimile of the First Edition, 1859]):308. For this reason, Darwin himself said that the pattern of abrupt appearance (his own term), "may be truly urged as a valid argument" against his theory of Common Descent.12 "I may give another instance, which, from having passed under my own eyes has much struck me. In a memoir on Fossil Sessile Cirripedes, I stated that, from the large number of existing and extinct tertiary species; from the extraordinary abundance of the individuals of many species all over the world, from the Arctic regions to the equator, inhabiting various zones of depths, from the upper tidal limits to fifty fathoms; from the perfect manner in which specimens are preserved in the oldest tertiary beds; from the ease with which even a fragment of a valve can be recognised; from all these circumstances, I inferred that, had sessile cirripedes existed during the secondary periods, they would certainly have been preserved and discovered; and as not one species had then been discovered in beds of this age, I concluded that this great group had been suddenly developed at the commencement of the tertiary series. This was a sore trouble to me, adding, as I then thought, one more instance of the abrupt appearance of a great group of species. But my work had hardly been published, when a skilful palaeontologist, M. Bosquet, sent me a drawing of a perfect specimen of an unmistakable sessile cirripede, which he had himself extracted from the chalk of Belgium. And, as if to make the case as striking as possible, this cirripede was a Chthamalus, a very common, large, and ubiquitous genus, of which not one species has as yet been found even in any tertiary stratum. Still more recently, a Pyrgoma, a member of a distinct subfamily of sessile cirripedes, has been discovered by Mr. Woodward in the upper chalk; so that we now have abundant evidence of the existence of this group of animals during the secondary period."

"ON THE SUDDEN APPEARANCE OF GROUPS OF ALLIED SPECIES IN THE LOWEST KNOWN FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA.

There is another and allied difficulty, which is much more serious. I allude to the manner in which species belonging to several of the main divisions of the animal kingdom suddenly appear in the lowest known fossiliferous rocks. Most of the arguments which have convinced me that all the existing species of the same group are descended from a single progenitor, apply with equal force to the earliest known species. For instance, it cannot be doubted that all the Cambrian and Silurian trilobites are descended from some one crustacean, which must have lived long before the Cambrian age, and which probably differed greatly from any known animal. Some of the most ancient animals, as the Nautilus, Lingula, etc., do not differ much from living species; and it cannot on our theory be supposed, that these old species were the progenitors of all the species belonging to the same groups which have subsequently appeared, for they are not in any degree intermediate in character.

Consequently, if the theory be true, it is indisputable that before the lowest Cambrian stratum was deposited long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from the Cambrian age to the present day; and that during these vast periods the world swarmed with living creatures. Here we encounter a formidable objection; for it seems doubtful whether the earth, in a fit state for the habitation of living creatures, has lasted long enough. Sir W. Thompson concludes that the consolidation of the crust can hardly have occurred less than twenty or more than four hundred million years ago, but probably not less than ninety-eight or more than two hundred million years. These very wide limits show how doubtful the data are; and other elements may have hereafter to be introduced into the problem. Mr. Croll estimates that about sixty million years have elapsed since the Cambrian period, but this, judging from the small amount of organic change since the commencement of the Glacial epoch, appears a very short time for the many and great mutations of life, which have certainly occurred since the Cambrian formation; and the previous one hundred and forty million years can hardly be considered as sufficient for the development of the varied forms of life which already existed during the Cambrian period. It is, however, probable, as Sir William Thompson insists, that the world at a very early period was subjected to more rapid and violent changes in its physical conditions than those now occurring; and such changes would have tended to induce changes at a corresponding rate in the organisms which then existed.

To the question why we do not find rich fossiliferous deposits belonging to these assumed earliest periods prior to the Cambrian system, I can give no satisfactory answer. Several eminent geologists, with Sir R. Murchison at their head, were until recently convinced that we beheld in the organic remains of the lowest Silurian stratum the first dawn of life. Other highly competent judges, as Lyell and E. Forbes, have disputed this conclusion. We should not forget that only a small portion of the world is known with accuracy. Not very long ago M. Barrande added another and lower stage, abounding with new and peculiar species, beneath the then known Silurian system; and now, still lower down in the Lower Cambrian formation, Mr Hicks has found South Wales beds rich in trilobites, and containing various molluscs and annelids. The presence of phosphatic nodules and bituminous matter, even in some of the lowest azotic rocks, probably indicates life at these periods; and the existence of the Eozoon in the Laurentian formation of Canada is generally admitted. There are three great series of strata beneath the Silurian system in Canada, in the lowest of which the Eozoon is found. Sir W. Logan states that their "united thickness may possibly far surpass that of all the succeeding rocks, from the base of the palaeozoic series to the present time. We are thus carried back to a period so remote, that the appearance of the so-called primordial fauna (of Barrande) may by some be considered as a comparatively modern event." The Eozoon belongs to the most lowly organised of all classes of animals, but is highly organised for its class; it existed in countless numbers, and, as Dr. Dawson has remarked, certainly preyed on other minute organic beings, which must have lived in great numbers. Thus the words, which I wrote in 1859, about the existence of living beings long before the Cambrian period, and which are almost the same with those since used by Sir W. Logan, have proved true. Nevertheless, the difficulty of assigning any good reason for the absence of vast piles of strata rich in fossils beneath the Cambrian system is very great. It does not seem probable that the most ancient beds have been quite worn away by denudation, or that their fossils have been wholly obliterated by metamorphic action, for if this had been the case we should have found only small remnants of the formations next succeeding them in age, and these would always have existed in a partially metamorphosed condition. But the descriptions which we possess of the Silurian deposits over immense territories in Russia and in North America, do not support the view that the older a formation is the more invariably it has suffered extreme denudation and metamorphism.

The case at present must remain inexplicable; and may be truly urged as a valid argument against the views here entertained. To show that it may hereafter receive some explanation, I will give the following hypothesis. From the nature of the organic remains which do not appear to have inhabited profound depths, in the several formations of Europe and of the United States; and from the amount of sediment, miles in thickness, of which the formations are composed, we may infer that from first to last large islands or tracts of land, whence the sediment was derived, occurred in the neighbourhood of the now existing continents of Europe and North America. This same view has since been maintained by Agassiz and others. But we do not know what was the state of things in the intervals between the several successive formations; whether Europe and the United States during these intervals existed as dry land, or as a submarine surface near land, on which sediment was not deposited, or as the bed of an open and unfathomable sea."

26 David M. Raup, "Conflicts between Darwin and paleontology," Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 50 (1979):22-29. "Instead of finding the gradual unfolding of life," writes paleontologist David Raup of the University of Chicago, "what geologists of Darwin's time, and geologists of the present day actually find is a highly uneven or jerky record; that is, species appear in the sequence very suddenly, show little or no change during their existence in the record, then abruptly go out of the record." 14 A discussion of other relevant quotes from Raup's paper showing that the intent is not to dispute that the fossil record documents evolutionary change, but that it rarely documents change that occurs as a simple outcome of the process of natural selection, can be seen here.

"What appeared to be a nice progression when relatively few data were available now appears to be much more complex and much less gradualistic. So Darwin's problem has not been alleviated in the last 120 years and we still have a record which does show change but one which can hardly be look upon as the most reasonable consequence of natural selection."

26 Joel Cracraft, "Phylogenetic Analysis, Evolutionary Models, and
Paleontology," in Phylogenetic Analysis and Paleontology, eds. Joel
Cracraft and Niles Eldredge (New York: Columbia University Press,
1979):7-39.
According to Joel Cracraft, a systematist at the American Museum of Natural History, On the Origin of Species contains no geological evidence to support Darwin's contention that evolution was a slow, gradual process. "The fossil record, seemingly so important for anyone advocating evolutionary modification through time, was not very kind to Darwin's cause. As a result, he ignored it; the fossil record certainly did not make him alter his theorizations or expectations. In fact, what he often saw was stasis."15 TBD
26 T.S. Kemp, Mammal-Like Reptiles and the Origin of Mammals, (London, England: Academic Press, 1982):296. Even advocates of the Darwinian account acknowledge that the fossil record displays far fewer transitionals than predicted by the theory of Common Descent. For example, in 1982, Oxford University paleontologist Thomas Kemp noted that, "Indeed, [the mammal-like reptile series] is the only such major transition in the animal kingdom that is anything like well-documented by an actual fossil record." 18 TBD
27 Mark A. Norell, Michael J. Novacek, "The fossil record and evolution: comparing cladistic and paleontologic evidence for vertebrate history," Science 255 (Mar 27, 1992)1690-1693. "Groups thought to have branched off early in primate history appear late in the record or have no fossil record."19 "The relationships examined here also reveal that the quality of the fossil record judged from other perspectives does not necessarily predict its match with independently derived phylogenetic evidence. The documented fossil record of primates is generally regarded as one of comparatively high quality based on the diversity and widespread geographic and geochronological distribution of primate fossils and the amount of attention the group has received (27). Yet the primate fossil record poorly reflects the higher level cladistic branching patterns (17). This is because some taxa (tarsiers and cheirogalines, for instance) thought to have branched off very early in primate history appear late in the record or have no fossil record (Fig. 2).
Despite these discrepancies, there is a noteworthy correspondence between the fossil record and the independently constructed phylogeny for many vertebrate groups. Statistically significant correlations (P< 0.05) were found in 18 of the 24 cases examined. Correspondence is particularly evident in some of the mammalian ungulate groups. For example, the impression that the fossil record of horses provides an excellent picture of the history of this group is extended to the remarkable match of that record with cladistic results."


Note that EE only quotes about half a sentence (bolded) from the original and inserts a word that doesn't appear in the original. Italics indicate the part of the sentence left off the EE quote. The substituted word significantly alters the meaning that the authors intended, since "Groups thought to have branched off early" implies all early primate evolution is put in doubt by the authors, while it is clear from the actual quote that instead they are raising their concern about specific primate taxa, and their larger point is that most lineages do show good correspondence between cladistic and paleontological data sets. The EE authors do not cite that more general conclusion, despite its relevance to the argument the EE authors are making.
29 Henry Gee, In Search of Deep Time: Beyond the Fossil Record to a New History of Life (New York: The Free Press, 1999)23. As zoologist Henry Gee writes, referring to fossil vertebrates in general, "The intervals of time that separate the fossils are so huge that we cannot say anything definite about their possible connection through ancestry and descent." 23 TBD
30 Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964 [Facsimile of the First Edition, 1859]):292. According to Darwin, the answer was clear: the fossil record is "extremely imperfect." It simply failed to document transitional forms. "Nature," wrote Darwin, "may almost be said to have guarded against the frequent discovery of her transitional or linking forms."24 TBD
30 Mike Foote, "Sampling, taxonomic description, and our evolving knowledge of morphological diversity," Paleobiology 23 (Spring 1997): 181-206. Mike Foote, op. cit. As Foote concludes, "We have a representative sample... and therefore we can rely on patterns documented in the fossil record."26 "This paper will explore the growth of our knowledge of morphological diversity in a few well-known fossil groups. We would like to know whether we have a representative sample of morphological diversity, and therefore can rely on patterns documented in the fossil record. On the basis of the date of publication of fossil species and genera, I construct sampling curves relating morphological diversity to the number of taxa described. I use these to address whether and how the crease in observed morphospace occupation reflects sampling of taxa nonrandomly with respect to their contribution to morphological disparity. In particular, addressing the claim that early systematists preferentially studied morphologically extreme forms (McGhee 1995), I find little evidence for such a secular trend. We would also like to know whether our view of macroevolutionary patterns is likely to change substantially as we increase our sample of fossil species. I document how secular patterns of morphological disparity have changed as our knowledge has increased. This gives some clues as to which patterns are robust in the face of variable sampling."

The way this is quoted made me think that I would find it in the last page or two of the article. So I looked there first. It turns out this comes in the second paragraph of the article. Basically, EE has taken a rhetorical question posed to help introduce the purpose of the study and turned it into a conclusion. One additional point needs to be made. This paper studies the morphospace of four groups of marine invertebrates: trilobites, blastozoans, blastoids, and crinoids, yet EE tries to use this as a statement about the entire fossil record - a questionable extrapolation at best.

32 Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964 [Facsimile of the First Edition, 1859]). Darwin, himself, had said the fossil record was "woefully incomplete."' TBD
32 Niles Eldredge, Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985):144. "We paleontologists," wrote Eldredge, "have said that the history of life supports that interpretation [of gradual adaptive change], all the while really knowing that it does not." 31 "And one might ask why such a distortion of the grosser patterns of the history of life has come about. For it truly seems to me that F. J. Taggart was right all along. The approach to the larger themes in the history of life taken by the modern synthesis continues the theme already painfully apparent to Taggart in 1925: a theory of gradual, progressive, adaptive change so thoroughly rules our minds and imaginations that we have somehow, collectively, turned away from some of the most basic patterns permeating the history of life.
We have a theory that -- as punctuated equilibria tells us -- is out of phase with the actual patterns of events that typically occur as species' histories unfold. And that discrepancy seems enlarged by a considerable order of magnitude when we compare what we think the larger-scale events ought to look like with what we actually find. And it has been paleontologists -- my own breed -- who have been most responsible for letting ideas dominate reality: geneticists and population biologists, to whom we owe the modern version of natural selection, can only rely on what paleontologists and systematic biologists tell them about the comings and goings of entire species, and what the large-scale evolutionary patterns really look like.

"Yet on the other hand, the certainty so characteristic of evolutionary ranks since the late 1940s, the utter assurance not only that natural selection works in nature, but that we know precisely how it works, has led paleontologists to keep their own counsel. Ever since Darwin, as philosopher Michael Ruse (1982) has recently said, paleontology has occasionally played the role of the difficult child. But our usual mien has been bland, and we have proffered a collective tacit acceptance of the story of gradual adaptive change, a story that strengthened and became even more entrenched as the synthesis took hold. We paleontologists have said that the history of life supports that interpretation, all the while really knowing that it does not. And part of the fault for such a bizarre situation must come from a naive understanding of just what adaptation is all about. We'll look at some of the larger patterns in the history of life in the next chapter -- along with the hypotheses currently offered as explanations. Throughout it all, adaptation shines through as an important theme; there is every reason to hang on to that baby as we toss out the bathwater. But before turning in depth to these themes, we need to take just one more, somewhat closer, look at the actual phenomenon of adaptation itself: what it is and how it occurs."

(Source)

32 Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge, "Punctuated equilibrium comes of age," Nature 366 (November 1993):223. "Stasis is data," they insisted.32 TBD
34 Jeffrey Levinton, Genetics, Paleontology, and Macroevolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998):208. As invertebrate zoologist Jeffrey Levinton argues, "[I]t is inconceivable how selection among species can produce the evolution of detailed morphological structures...Species selection did not form an eye."37 Even without this argument, it is inconceivable how selection among species can produce the evolution of complex morphological structures. The elaboration of some of these structures has of course taken more that the life of any one species; cladogenesis is coincidental to any major evolutionary trend, but it does not follow that it is a causal mechanism. If anything, cladogenesis may slow down the evolution of complex structures, simply because species are continually winding up in new and complex environments that might constrain the further improvement of a structure down a main evolutionary path. In contrast to the arguments of Stanley (1979), phyletic evolution is the likely source of complex adaptations, whereas species drift or selection is likely to bring about evolutionary trends such as changes in overall body size or degrees of ornamentation. Species selection did not form an eye or a secondary palate.
34 Stephen Jay Gould, The Structure of Evolutionary Theory, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002):710. "I recognize," wrote Gould, "that we know no mechanism for the origin of such organismal features other than conventional natural selection at the organismic level...." 38 "Several Darwinian strict constructionists, Richard Dawkins and Daniel Dennett in particular, hold that almost everything of interest in evolutionary biology either inheres in, or flows from, natural selection's power to craft the intricate and excellent design of organisms - "organized adaptive complexity," in Dawkin's favorite phrase. "Biology is engineering" Dennett tells us again and again in his narrowly focussed book (Dennett, 1995).


I do not deny the wonder, or the powerful importance, of organized adaptive complexity. I recognize that we know no mechanism for the origin of such organismal features other than conventional natural selection at the organismic level - for the sheer intricacy and elaboration of good biomechanical design surely preclude either random production, or incidental origin as a side consequence of active processes at other levels. But I decry the parochialism of basking so strongly in the wonder of organismic complexity that nothing else in evolution seems to matter."

It should be noted that this comes in a section defending species selection.

36 Is Darwin right when he says that nature has "guarded against the discovery of the transitional forms? TBD
37 Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964 [Facsimile of the First Edition, 1859]):484. "...probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed." TBD
37 James W. Valentine, On the Origin of Phyla (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004):35. "[M]any of the branches [of the Tree of Life], large as well as small, are cryptogenetic (cannot be traced into ancestors). Some of these gaps are surely caused by the incompleteness of the fossil record (chap.5), but that cannot be the sole explanation for the cryptogenetic nature of some families, many invertebrate orders, all invertebrate classes, and all metazoan phyla." TBD
37 Stefanie De Bodt, Steven Maere, and Yves Van de Peer, "Genome duplication and the origin of angiosperms," Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20 (2005):591-597. "In spite of much research and analyses of different sources of data (e.g., fossil record and phylogenetic analyses using molecular and morphological characters), the origin of the angiosperms remains unclear. Angiosperms appear rather suddenly in the fossil record... with no obvious ancestors for a period of 80-90 million years before their appearance." TBD
37 Correspondence between Charles Darwin and his friend Joseph Hooker. Quoted by Henry Dunkinfield Scott, The Evolution of Plants (New York: Henry Holt, 1911):37. "The rapid development as far as we can judge of all the higher plants within recent geological times is an abominable mystery." TBD
Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964 [Facsimile of the First Edition, 1859]):308. The full quotation reads, "The case at present must remain inexplicable; and may be truly urged as a valid argument against the views here entertained." TBD
37 Joel Cracraft, "Phylogenetic Analysis, Evolutionary Models, and Paleontology," in Phylogenetic Analysis and Paleontology, eds. Joel Cracraft and Niles Eldredge (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979):7-39. Cracraft goes on to say, "Indeed, the 'factual information' that Darwin presents (there was virtually none) seems to support a philosophical (and scientific) viewpoint opposite to that of his own. Darwin was the consummate theorist, a scientist of the highest stature who did not let data stand in the way of his ideas." TBD
37 T.S. Kemp, Mammal-Like Reptiles and the Origin of Mammals,
(London, England: Academic Press, 1982):296.
More recently, Kemp restates his view. "As it happens, the fossil record of the mammal-like reptiles is still by far the best paleontological documentation of the origin of a major new taxon, notwithstanding recent discoveries of transitional grades of tetrapods...and birds." T.S. Kemp, The Origin & Evolution of Mammals (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). TBD
TBD

Quotations from the "Natural Selection" Section





This is a stub for entry of a table of quotations, where the quotes within the Explore Evolution book section on "Natural Selection" are enumerated and compared to original text.

Page(s) Source E.E. version Actual Quote
0 TBD

Universal Common Descent

This is a stub for entering discussion of the first section of Explore Evolution, pp.1-82.

Concerning the Cambrian Explosion, Steve Story noted the commonality between material presented in Explore Evolution and previous antievolution arguments.

Turtle Evolution

Explore Evolution pitches turtle evolution as a topic that has no settled answers in eovlutionary science. Along the way, they deploy a quote from Scott Gilbert and cite another paper to make the point that scientists are researching the issue; they don't have a current complete answer.

Commenter "JAM" points out that the second citation is misused.

Quote (JAM @ July 18 2007,18:21)

Re quotation #24,

The second and third quotations aren't in the cited paper. In fact, this very cool paper supports a hypothesis that provides an explanation for the rapid evolution of the turtle's shell, directly contradicting the apparently manufactured quote:

"The recognition of a simple developmental mechanism, namely an epithelial-mesenchymal interaction, at the initiation of carapace development provides a basis for hypotheses about the rapid evolution of this body plan (Burke 1989b).

Burke, A. C. 1989b. Development of the turtle carapace: implications for
the evolution of a novel bauplan. J. Morphol. 199: 363–378.

Note also that the authors hypothesize which proteins are involved, which inductive relationships between tissues are involved, etc.

Clearly, this is another lie by omission, possibly compounded by lies of commission.

Wesley,

You should update your description of the turtle quotations from page 24, because it doesn't include the second paper that they quote-mined:

How the Turtle Forms its Shell: A Paracrine Hypothesis of Carapace Formation
JUDITH CEBRA-THOMAS et al. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY (MOL DEV EVOL) 304B:558–569 (2005)

They are still being completely dishonest, however. Here are the partial quotes from that second paper:

Quote

Because "the distinctive morphology of the turtle appears to have arisen suddenly," Gilbert and his colleagues argue that evolution needs "to explain the rapid origin of the turtle carapace [shell]."

The first in context:

Quote

This reptile [Proganochelys] had the characteristic derived trunk morphology now associated with turtles. Thus, the distinctive morphology of the turtle appears to have arisen suddenly. We can propose a hypothesis that may explain at least part of how this might happen. The key innovation is to getting the ribs into the dermis. Once there, variation in the population might enable some individuals to use this heterotopic placement of ribs to form a shell. If they could form a positive feedback loop between the rib and the CR (e.g., through Fgf10 and Fgf8), they could co-ordinate rib and carapace growth. When the ribs undergo normal endochodral ossification, the BMPs would induce the costal bones that form the plate of the carapace. (This may involve overpowering natural inhibitors of BMPs that are secreted by the dermis.) This mechanism, wherein the displacement of a tissue allows it to induce structures at new locations, has been proposed by Brylski and Hall (’88) to account for the rapid emergence of the fur-lined cheek pouches of pocket gophers. The compatibility of our findings with those of the
turtle fossil record has been noted by paleontologists (Rieppel, ’01).

The second in context:

Quote

These observations indicate that the ribs act as initiation centers for the dermal ossification of costal bones. The ossifying regions of the dermis extend towards one another to eventually fuse. The data reported in the present report confirm and extend these observations and permit us to frame a hypothesis to explain the rapid origin of the turtle carapace.

Natural Selection

This is a stub for entering discussion of the second section of Explore Evolution.